I Hate Dialysis Message Board
Dialysis Discussion => Dialysis: General Discussion => Topic started by: okarol on April 11, 2009, 10:37:31 AM
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(Nothing is easy when it comes to understanding all the diagnostic tests, but here's a good overview from AAKP)
Medical Tests Made Easy
By Jay Wish, MD
Introduction
Patients with kidney disease need to understand the meaning of the many tests that are performed to measure kidney function, to assess the complications of kidney disease and to determine the response to treatment. This article addresses some of the tests that are most commonly performed on patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), explaining the rationale for the tests and the implications if the tests falls outside a normal or target range. It is important for each patient with kidney disease to discuss the results of his or her own tests with their nephrologist.
Tests of Kidney Function
The blood urea nitrogen (BUN) is a normal product of the breakdown of proteins, both in the diet and in the body. Normal kidneys excrete urea efficiently, so the BUN level rarely exceeds 20 in patients without kidney disease. The BUN level will rise above the normal range when the ability of the kidneys to excrete urea is impaired or in situations where protein breakdown is increased (such as a high-protein diet or damage to cells). A decrease in BUN during dialysis is the most commonly used test to measure dialysis adequacy.
Serum creatinine is the most commonly used test of kidney function and is more accurate than the BUN since its level is not affected by dietary protein intake. Serum refers to the liquid part of the blood, and the tests described below using the term “serum” just mean that they are blood tests. Creatinine is a normal product of muscle breakdown, and is produced at approximately the same rate every day in each person. Creatinine is normally excreted by the kidneys. A normal serum creatinine level for an adult is around 1 (0.6-1.2). Using only serum creatinine as a test of kidney function has been shown in many patients to underestimate the degree of kidney disease. Other formulas which use serum creatinine along with patient characteristics such as age, weight, gender and race are much more accurate in determining kidney function.
Creatinine clearance is a measure of kidney function that can be determined from a 24-hour urine collection and a simultaneous blood sample, or it can be calculated from a formula based on serum creatinine and the patient’s age, weight and gender. The creatinine clearance test has recently fallen out of favor because it tends to overestimate kidney function as compared to glomerular filtration rate (GFR) also, because the collection of a 24-hour urine sample tends to be cumbersome and often inaccurate since it may fail to capture the entire urine output of the patient over a 24-hour period. Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) has become the “gold standard” test for the measurement of kidney function. It is the basis for the classification of the stages of CKD endorsed by the National Kidney Foundation (NKF). Another advantage of GFR is that it is expressed in terms of a value for a standard sized individual, making it possible to predict what the consequences of abnormal kidney function will be on populations of individuals irrespective of the size of a particular person. The most accurate way to determine GFR is by a kidney scan, but this is expensive and cumbersome, and is generally reserved for research protocols. It is possible to get a reasonably accurate measurement of GFR with a formula that uses the patient’s serum creatinine, age, gender and race. The GFR is also used by the Center for Medicare Services (CMS) to determine the threshold at which dialysis is initiated and by the United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) to determine when a patient becomes eligible for a kidney transplant.
The NKF’s staging classification of CKD is shown in Table 1 with a description of the action that is recommended at each stage. If you have CKD and are not yet on dialysis, you should ask your doctor what your GFR is, then you can determine what stage you fall into and what the recommendations for further evaluation and treatment of your kidney disease and its complications are at that stage. If you are on peritoneal dialysis, the dose of peritoneal dialysis administered to you takes into account any residual kidney function you might have, and this is based on a GFR as well.
[table 1 below]
Anemia in Renal Disease
Virtually all patients with CKD will develop anemia due to decreased production of erythropoietin (EPO) by the kidneys. EPO is a hormone produced by normal kidneys that stimulates the bone marrow to make an adequate number of red blood cells assuring oxygen delivery to all tissues. With increasing damage to the kidneys, the production of EPO decreases, so the bone marrow produces fewer red blood cells and anemia develops. Red blood cells carry oxygen to the tissues by binding the oxygen to hemoglobin which contains iron. The initial evaluation of anemia should include tests of iron, as well as certain vitamins that are required for hemoglobin production. Tests should also check for small amounts of blood leaking out in the stool.
The most commonly used test to diagnose anemia is the hemoglobin level in the blood. A decreased level of hemoglobin in the blood impairs the ability to deliver oxygen to the tissues, and leads to symptoms including weakness, fatigue and shortness of breath. More importantly, a low hemoglobin level puts an additional strain on the heart, since the heart has to pump more blood in order to keep up with the oxygen demands of the tissues in the body. This may lead to cardiac complications including heart failure and heart attacks. The lower limit of a normal hemoglobin level is 12 in menstruating females and 13.5 in males and postmenopausal females.
Hematocrit is the percentage volume of blood occupied by the red cells after the blood is centrifuged, and is approximately three times the hemoglobin level. It’s not as accurate a test as is measuring the hemoglobin directly. The lower limit of normal hematocrit for menstruating females is 36 and for males and postmenopausal females is 41. The two major tests to diagnose iron deficiency are transferrin saturation (TSAT) and serum ferritin. TSAT is a measure of the iron that is carried in the blood that can be delivered to the bone marrow to be incorporated into new red blood cells. When patients are treated with EPO-like drugs, it accelerates red blood cell production to a higher than normal level, so a higher than normal TSAT is required to keep up with the demand for iron by the bone marrow. The target TSAT for patients with CKD who are being treated with EPO-like drugs is 20–50 percent. Serum ferritin is another test of iron and correlates with the amount of iron that your body holds in storage. This is not iron that is in the blood or is available to the bone marrow for production of new red blood cells. It is important for patients receiving EPO-like drugs to maintain adequate iron stores so that the body does not run out of iron as new red blood cells are produced. Unfortunately, the serum ferritin may also be elevated in the setting of inflammation, independent of iron stores, so sometimes an elevated serum ferritin can be difficult to interpret by your physician. If you are an anemic patient with CKD whose TSAT is less than 20 percent or whose serum ferritin is less than 100, you should be treated with an oral or intravenous iron supplement to get your TSAT and serum ferritin back into the target range. The presence of iron deficiency will make it more difficult for your anemia to be corrected even if you are given an EPO-like agent.
Vitamin deficiencies may also contribute to anemia in patients with CKD, especially if you are not eating a balanced diet. The two most important vitamins for red blood cell production are vitamin B12 and folic acid. The levels of these vitamins in the blood should be measured as part of a complete evaluation of anemia, and these vitamins should be replaced if they are deficient. Reticulocytes are the youngest red blood cells in your circulation, one or two days old, and can be identified because they take on a special stain in the blood analyzer machine. Measurement of these newest red blood cells can be helpful in determining whether anemia is due to an underproduction of red blood cells or due to the loss or destruction of existing red blood cells. Patients with anemia in the setting of CKD, because they are deficient in EPO, have an underproduction of red blood cells and, therefore, a low reticulocyte count. If your reticulocyte count is elevated, then consideration should be given as to whether your anemia might be due, in part, to the loss or destruction of red blood cells in addition to EPO deficiency.
Many patients with CKD have abnormalities in blood clotting which may lead to a low-grade loss of red blood cells in the gastrointestinal tract through the stools. Therefore, a complete evaluation of anemia should include a test for hidden blood in the stool that can be done by your physician in his/her office. If blood is present in the stool, then it is important for this to be followed up by additional tests to determine whether or not this represents a condition that needs to be treated more extensively.
Tests of Bone Disease
Bone disease often occurs in patients with CKD. This is due to the inability of the kidneys to completely excrete phosphorus from the blood and due to the inability of the kidneys to convert vitamin D to its active form. Both of these problems lead to a decrease in serum calcium levels, which stimulates the parathyroid gland in the neck to make a hormone, called parathyroid hormone (PTH). This hormone raises the serum calcium level back towards normal by breaking down bone and releasing calcium from the bone. Treatment and prevention of bone disease in patients with CKD is directed at treating the elevated serum phosphorus with phosphate binders and dietary phosphate restriction, and providing the active form of vitamin D with a medication. This can be administered either orally or intravenously on dialysis. Therefore, it is important to periodically monitor the effectiveness of this therapy by measuring serum calcium, serum phosphorus and serum PTH levels. The target range for serum calcium in patients with CKD is 8.4-9.5. A low serum calcium level should be avoided because it stimulates the parathyroid gland to make more PTH and to accelerate bone disease. On the other hand, high serum calcium levels may lead to the deposition of calcium in soft tissues and vessels, increasing the risk of heart attacks, strokes and other forms of cardiovascular disease. The target range for serum phosphorus in patients with CKD is 3.5-5.5. Almost all patients with CKD will require dietary phosphorus restriction and/or phosphate binders to maintain serum phosphorus levels within the target range. Although elevated serum phosphorus levels generally do not produce symptoms other than itching, it is extremely important for you to monitor your serum phosphorus levels. Working with your physician and dietitian to modify your diet and phosphate therapy as needed to keep the serum phosphorus level within the target range will help.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels correlate with the development of bone disease in patients with CKD, and should be measured periodically. Elevated PTH levels can be treated in two ways: the administration of an activated form of vitamin D either orally or intravenously and with a newer drug called cinacalcet which directly suppresses the release of PTH from the parathyroid gland. The most commonly used test is called intact PTH (iPTH) which has a target range of 150-300 in patients on dialysis, 70-110 in patients with stage 4 CKD, and 35-70 in patients with stage 3 CKD. PTH levels higher than the target are bad because they are associated with the increased breakdown of bone which leads to loss of bone strength and increased incidence of fractures. If your PTH level is out of the target range for your stage of CKD, you should discuss this with your nephrologist.
Other Lab Tests
The monitoring of serum potassium levels in patients with more advanced stages of CKD and those on dialysis is important because very high serum potassium levels can lead to cardiac arrest. The level of CKD at which serum potassium levels rise above the normal range varies from individual to individual. Although the upper limit of potassium for the normal population is 5.0, patients with CKD and longstanding high potassium levels can generally tolerate potassium levels as high as the 5.5-6.0 range. Many physicians will become concerned with potassiums in this range and initiate treatment with an agent that removes potassium from the body through the gastrointestinal tract, such as Kayexalate. If your serum potassium level is elevated and you are a CKD patient not yet on dialysis, then your physician should evaluate the drugs you are receiving to determine if any might be contributing to the high potassium levels, and you may benefit from an increased dose of diuretic to augment the excretion of potassium through your urine. You should also examine your diet with a dietitian to determine whether or not you are consuming foods that are high in potassium and change your food choices accordingly.
The serum sodium level is a reflection of whether or not there is too much or too little water in the body. Patients with kidney disease have an inability to excrete as much water as normal individuals, so a large water intake may lead to the retention of water in the body which dilutes the serum sodium to a lower than normal level. The normal serum sodium level is 135-145. If the serum sodium level gets down to the low 120’s, the water that has been retained, causes swelling. The symptoms that occur are due to swelling of the brain, which has no place to expand because it is enclosed in the rigid skull cavity. These symptoms include headache, nausea, vomiting and seizures. A restriction of fluid in the diet may be necessary in some patients with CKD to avoid this complication.
The serum bicarbonate level usually falls below the normal range in patients with more advanced kidney disease because their kidneys are no longer able to excrete acids at the rate the acids are produced by the body. The bicarbonate on the blood combines with these retained acids and prevents the acids from combining with other molecules that would produce more damage to the body. As more acids are retained, the bicarbonate level falls further, and then the acids start to combine with the phosphorus in bone. When that happens, calcium is released from the bone, and this makes the bone weaker. So it is important for patients to maintain a serum bicarbonate level over 20 to minimize the amount of acid that goes into bone. This may require the administration of an oral bicarbonate supplement or a medication which the body converts to bicarbonate.
[table 2 below]
Conclusion
There are other tests that may be performed on patients with CKD that are beyond the scope of this article. These include x-rays and other imaging studies of the kidneys to evaluate for structural abnormalities of the urinary tract, abnormal blood flow to the kidneys and kidney function, and evaluation of blood vessels including venous mapping and angiography that may be performed as part of your preparation for hemodialysis vascular access placement. Patients with CKD who are not yet on dialysis should understand that many abnormalities may develop which do not produce symptoms but must be treated before complications occur. Knowledge is power to control your destiny. By understanding and responding to abnormalities in your medical tests, you have a much better chance of achieving favorable healthcare outcomes.
Jay B. Wish, M.D. is Professor of Medicine at Case Western Reserve University and Medical Director, Hemodialysis Services at the University Hospitals of Cleveland. Dr. Wish is also a member of the AAKP Medical Advisory Board.
This article originally appeared in the June/July 2006 issue of Kidney Beginnings: The Magazine, Vol. 5, No. 2.
http://www.aakp.org/print-version/dsp_library_art.cfm?art=71
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This is excellent. Wish I had this when I was first diagnosed! It answers many questions and explains what all the "alphabet" means!
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Thank you for the information. That chart is the best reference tool I have seen.
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Very useful information.
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Very informative!
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:bump;
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Wow!! glad ya 'bumped" this up!! Nice!!!!!